INTRODUCTION
⌅Pork meat is a highly demanded production worldwide, due to its rapid growth and good food conversion rate. The food for pigs represents between 60 and 70 % of total production costs (Caicedo and Caicedo 2021Caicedo, W. & Caicedo, L. 2021. “Comportamiento productivo de cerdos comerciales en crecimiento alimentados con ensilado de papa (Solanum tuberosum L.) de rechazo”. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 33(4), Article #51, ISSN: 2521-9952. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd33/4/3351orlan.html.). In traditional pig farming, antibiotics and growth promoters were indiscriminately used, which gave rise to the appearance of resistant microorganisms and affected carcass quality (Rakotoharinome et al. 2014Rakotoharinome, M., Pognon, D., Randriamparany, T., Ming, J.C., Idoumbin, J.P., Cardinale, E. & Porphyre, V. 2014. “Prevalence of antimicrobial residues in pork meat in Madagascar”. Tropical Animal Health Production, 46(1): 49-55, ISSN: 0049-4747. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11250-013-0445-9. ).
In this context, new research arises with natural additives from medicinal plants (phytobiotics), which allow the partial or total substitution of drugs in pigs diet. Beneficial bioactive compounds include carvacrol, thymol, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, sabinene, α-thujene, α-terpinene, linalool, eugenol, flavonoids, n-alkanes, sesquiterpenes, eugenol, coumarins, anthocyanidins, and saponins. However, for its implementation in the animal diet, some processing is necessary to improve the stability and quality of the product (Santamaría et al. 2015Santamaría, C., Martín-González, A. & Astorga, F. 2015. “Extractos vegetales aplicación para la reducción de stres”. Revista nutriNews, No.2: 75-80. Available: https://nutricionanimal.info/download/0315-ena-WEB.pdf., Zaldumbide 2015Zaldumbide, M. 2015. Evaluación de dietas con dos niveles de aceite de orégano sobre el desempeño productivo en lechones destetados hasta la fase inicial. Veterinarian Thesis. Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador, 79 p., Carrión and García 2010Carrión, A.V. & García, C.R. 2010. Preparación de extractos vegetales: determinación de eficiencia metódica. Biochemistry Thesis. Universidad de Cuenca, Cuenca, Ecuador, 150 p. and Morejón 2016Morejón, S. 2016. Evaluación de un extracto alternativo comercial de plantas medicinales en la dieta de cerdos de línea comercial topins en la etapa de acabado. Engr Thesis. Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador, 104 p.). The literature reports that the bioactive components of vegetables are supplied as essential oils, extracts and powders (Vázquez et al. 2013Vázquez, E., García-Risco, M.R., Jaime, L., Reglero, G. & Fornari, T. 2013. “Simultaneous extraction of rosemary and spinach leaves and its effect on the antioxidant activity of products”. Journal of Supercritical Fluids, 82: 138-145, ISSN: 0896-8446. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.supflu.2013.07.004. , Jaime et al. 2015Jaime, L., Vázquez, E., Fornari, T., López‐Hazas, M.C., García‐Risco, M.R., Santoyo, S. & Reglero, G. 2015. “Extraction of functional ingredients from spinach (Spinacia oleracea L.) using liquid solvent and supercritical CO2 extraction”. Journal of the Science and Food Agriculture, 95(4): 722-729, ISSN: 1097-0010. https://doi.org/10.1002/jsfa.6788. and Roura 2019Roura, E. 2019. Los Fitobióticos como estimulantes digestivos en nutrición porcina. Available: https://nutricionanimal.info/los-fitobioticos-actuan-como-estimulantes-digestivos/ ).
These additives improve the taste of food, the secretion of digestive enzymes, gastric and intestinal motility, endocrine and immune stimulation, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant activity and, therefore, improvements in intake, digestibility, Food conversion and the animals weight are obtained (Gheisar and Kim 2017Gheisar, M.M. & Kim, I.H. 2017. “Phytobiotics in poultry and swine nutrition - a review”. Italian Journal of Animal Science, 17(1): 1-8, ISSN: 1594-4077. https://doi.org/10.1080/1828051X.2017.1350120. , Madrid et al. 2018Madrid, T., López, A. & Parra, J. 2018. “Efecto del aceite esencial de orégano (Lippia origanoides) sobre metabolitos sanguíneos en pollos de engorde”. Revista de Medicina Veterinaria, 1(37): 25-33, ISSN: 2389-8526. https://doi.org/10.19052/mv.vol1.iss37.3. and Herrera and Trigueros 2019Herrera, G.A. & Trigueros, J.M. 2019. Efecto del fitobiótico Digestarom® Finish en el desempeño productivo de cerdos de engorde. Engr. Thesis. Escuela Agrícola Panamericana, Zamorano, Honduras, 19 p.). In addition, they have great bactericidal potential against Enterococcus faecalis, Clostridium spp, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli and Salmonella spp (Ahmed et al. 2013Ahmed, S.T., Hossain, M.E., Kim, G.M., Hwang, J.A., Ji, H. & Yang, C.J. 2013. “Effects of Resveratrol and Essential Oils on Growth Performance, Immunity, Digestibility and Fecal Microbial Shedding in Challenged Piglets”. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 26(5): 683-690, ISSN: 1976-5517. https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2012.12683. and Cárdenas 2014Cárdenas, M. 2014. Utilización de mananoligosacáridos en dietas de cerdos en etapa de crecimiento. Veterinarian Thesis. Universidad Politécnica Salesiana, Cuenca, Ecuador, 100 p.).
The increase in the palatability of diets is associated with the sensory characteristics that vegetable additives provide to pig food (Liptosa 2020Liptosa. 2020. Nuevas Aplicaciones de Fitobióticos y Nutraceúticos a la salud Intestinal. Available: https://millingandgrain.co/entrada/nuevas-aplicaciones-de-fitobioticos-y-nutraceuticos-a-la-salud-intestinal-22066.). There are different products that act as antioxidants in the pig's gastrointestinal tract, able of delaying or preventing cell oxidation (Saldivar 2019Saldivar, D. 2019. Fitobióticos en el Mantenimiento de la Salud Intestinal y Desempeño Productivo en Cerdos. Available: https://bmeditores.mx/porcicultura/fitobioticos-en-el-mantenimiento-de-la-salud-intestinal-y-desempeno-productivo-en-cerdos-2309/ ). The microbial action is due to the pressure it exerts on the cell membrane, which gives place to imbalances that compromise the osmotic balance and that end with the lysis of the bacteria (Vásquez 2015Vásquez, E. 2015. Actividades Biológicas de Extractos de Plantas y de sus Combinaciones. PhD Thesis. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Madrid, España, 224 p. and Suryanarayana and Durga 2018Suryanarayana, M.A. & Durga, S. 2018. “Role of Phytogenic Feed Additives in Swine Production-A Review”. International Journal of Environment, Agriculture and Biotechnology, 3(3): 1071-1078, ISSN: 2456-1878. https://doi.org/10.22161/ijeab/3.3.46. ). The health and integrity of the gastrointestinal tract is key in the productivity of animals; a healthy digestive tract will be one that maintains its structural and biochemical functionality, and that also has a balanced microbial population (Saldivar 2019Saldivar, D. 2019. Fitobióticos en el Mantenimiento de la Salud Intestinal y Desempeño Productivo en Cerdos. Available: https://bmeditores.mx/porcicultura/fitobioticos-en-el-mantenimiento-de-la-salud-intestinal-y-desempeno-productivo-en-cerdos-2309/ ). In fact, most antibodies are produced in the intestines, so a proper feeding management allows keeping the animal healthy (FAO 2016FAO. 2016. Organización de las Naciones Unidas para la Alimentación y Agricultura. Producción y Sanidad Animal. Available: http://www.fao.org/ag/againfo/themes/es/pigs/home.html.).
The objective of this study was to assess the use of phytobiotic additives (essential oils, powders and extracts) in the different stages of pig production.
PHYTOBIOTIC ADDITIVES FOR USE IN PIGS
⌅At the international level, there are about 60 families of widely distributed plants, among which are: Compositae, Labiatae, Lauraceae, Myrtaceae, Pinaceae, Rosaceae, Rutaceae and Umbelliferae. Generally, they are families of plants that are found in temperate zones, such as Mediterranean and tropical countries. The active compounds of plants are in their leaves (basil, eucalyptus, peppermint, marjoram, mint, rosemary, sage, lemon balm), roots (angelica, saffron, turmeric, ginger, valerian), seeds (anise, dill, fennel, cumin), stem (cinnamon), flowers (lavender, chamomile, thyme, rose) and fruits(lemon, tangerine, orange, caraway, coriander, bay leaf, nutmeg, pepper), being stored in the secretory cells, cavities, carcass, epidermal cells or glandular trichomes that are obtained by means of steam distillation (Calsamiglia et al. 2017).
Martínez and Herradora (2019)Martínez, K. & Herradora, M. 2019. Fitobióticos ¿Una Alternativa Real?. Available: https://bmeditores.mx/porcicultura/fitobioticos-una-alternativa-real-2485/. state that 10 % of the plants that exist in the world can be considered medicinal, with many phytochemical properties. For many centuries they have been used to prevent or cure diseases that affect humans and animals. The secondary metabolites of plants are organic compounds, which are formed as a result of the main biosynthetic and metabolic ways. The presence and quantity of metabolites depends on the part of the plant that is used: stems, seeds, flowers, berries, bark or roots and both. In addition, its concentration can also be influenced by environmental conditions, the appearance of pests, as well as the sowing and harvesting season of the plant (Champagne and Boutry 2016Champagne, A. & Boutry, M. 2016. “Proteomics of terpenoid biosynthesis and secretion in trichomes of higher plant species”. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 1864 (8): 1039-1049, ISSN: 0304-4165. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.bbapap.2016.02.010. ).
In order to obtain these compounds, different methodologies are carried out for their use from the fragment of the plant. In the human and animal food industry, essential oils, powders and plant extracts are frequently used. The use of commercial or experimental phytobiotics for the pigs diet maintains a progressive rhythm, especially since the need to replace antibiotic growth promoters of synthetic origin was anticipated at the beginning of the 21st century, which began in 2006 in the European Union and, more recently, in countries such as United States and Mexico (Roura 2019Roura, E. 2019. Los Fitobióticos como estimulantes digestivos en nutrición porcina. Available: https://nutricionanimal.info/los-fitobioticos-actuan-como-estimulantes-digestivos/ ). It should be noted that these additives do not have a withdrawal time, and do not generate residuality in the carcasses and, therefore, do not affect the health of consumers.
ESSENTIAL OILS
⌅Essential oils (EO) are characterized by being aromatic substances, because their volatile components produce odors and flavors characteristic of plants (Arteaga et al. 2019Arteaga, Y., Bravo, L.R., García, Y., Tapuy, A.S., Bermúdez, A. & Guzmán, D.M. 2019. “Evaluation of the synergistic effects of antioxidant activity on mixtures of the essential oil from Apium graveolens L., Thymus vulgaris L. and Coriandrum sativum L. using simplex-lattice design”. Heliyon, 5 (6): e01942, ISSN: 2405-8440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01942 ). The EO contains highly volatile aromatic molecules such as (alkanes, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and acids), monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenylpropanes. In addition, they contain compounds such as carvacrol, thymol, γ-terpinene, p-cymene, sabinene, α-thujene, α-terpinene, linalool and eugenol, depending on the plant species (Martínez et al. 2015Martínez, R. Ortega, M., Herrera, J., Kawas, J., Zárate, J. & Robles, R. 2015. “Uso de aceites esenciales en animales de granja”. Interciencia, 40(11): 744-750, ISSN: 0378-1844.).
A procedure for extracting EO consists of placing a 500 g sample of coarse air-dried powder (30 °C for 6 h) in the distiller, with a particle size <0.5 mm. The distillation process is carried out with a continuous flow of water steam (close to 100 °C). The process is stopped after 40 min, when it is observed that the oil volume readings remain constant. Later, the oil is separated and passed over anhydrous sodium sulfate. Then, it is passed through paper filter and kept at 4 °C in sealed vials in the dark up to 24 h, in order to ensure that oxidative degradation does not occur for their later use (Artega et al. 2019Arteaga, Y., Bravo, L.R., García, Y., Tapuy, A.S., Bermúdez, A. & Guzmán, D.M. 2019. “Evaluation of the synergistic effects of antioxidant activity on mixtures of the essential oil from Apium graveolens L., Thymus vulgaris L. and Coriandrum sativum L. using simplex-lattice design”. Heliyon, 5 (6): e01942, ISSN: 2405-8440. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2019.e01942 ).
The supplementation of pigs diet with essential oils influences on the protection of the intestinal wall, and offers a line of defense against pathogens (Omonijo et al. 2018Omonijo, F.A., Ni, L., Gong, J., Wang, Q., Lahaye, L. & Yang, C. 2018. “Essential oils as alternatives to antibiotics in swine production”. Animal Nutrition, 4(2): 126-136, ISSN: 2405-6545. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aninu.2017.09.001. ). The epithelial cells that make up the intestine wall need to be healthy to neutralize toxins and prevent pathogens from passing directly into the bloodstream (Jiménez 2015Jiménez, O. 2015. Evaluación de los parámetros productivos en cerdos de raza Landrace a base de aceite de orégano como promotor de crecimiento, en el barrio el Rosal del cantón Mejía. Veterinarian Thesis. Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi, Latacunga, Ecuador, 106 p.). As the antagonistic bacteria (Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus) increase, they strengthen the intestinal wall and supply energy to the epithelial cells. Van and Van (2009)Van, G. & Van, A. 2009. Aceites esenciales y ácidos orgánicos contra E. coli (1+1=3). Available: https://www.3tres3.com/articulos/aceites-esenciales-y-acidos-organicos-contra-e-coli-1-1=3_2550/. mentioned that EO inhibits the formation of flagella in Escherichia coli, which affects their growth and multiplication.
Hall et al. (2021)Hall, H.N., Wilkinson, D.J. & Le Bon, M. 2021. “Oregano essential oil improves piglet health and performance through maternal feeding and is associated with changes in the gut microbiota”. Animal Microbiome, 3, Article #2, ISSN: 2524-4671. https://doi.org/10.1186/s42523-020-00064-2. conducted a study in lactating sows supplemented with oregano EO. These authors obtained heavier piglets at one week of age, 10 weeks after weaning and at the slaughter time. Also, health records showed that piglets from litters supplemented with EO significantly reduced the incidence of therapeutic treatment and mortality. In another study, with male and female fattening pigs, the inclusion of oregano EO in the diet improved the productive yield and carcass characteristics of the animals (Janacua-Vidales et al. 2018Janacua-Vidales, H., Alarcón-Rojo, A., Olguín-Arredond, H., Quintero-Elisea, J. & Cardona-Hernández, M. 2018. “Aceites esenciales de orégano en la dieta de cerdos para mejorar las características de la canal”. CULCyT, 65: 85-90, ISSN: 2007-0411.).
Research concerning the use of EO in pig diets emphasizes its many benefits on food palatability, intestinal health, and animal productivity. Tables 1 and 2 show different commercial and experimental presentations of essential oils used in pigs.
| Species (plant) | Used part | Commercial name | Trading house | Country | Composition | Category | Dose | Benefits | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Oregano (O. vulgares L.) | Leaves and flowers | Orevitol®-L | CKM | Peru | Baca and Ampuero (2019)Baca, N. & Ampuero, A. 2019. “Efecto de la inclusión de aceite esencial de orégano en la dieta de lechones destetados sobre parámetros productivos”. Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú, 30(4): 1537-1542, ISSN: 1609-9117. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v30i4.17145. | ||||
| Oregano (O. vulgares L.) | Leaves and flowers | Regano 4XL | PREMIUM S.A. | Costa Rica | Jiménez (2015)Jiménez, O. 2015. Evaluación de los parámetros productivos en cerdos de raza Landrace a base de aceite de orégano como promotor de crecimiento, en el barrio el Rosal del cantón Mejía. Veterinarian Thesis. Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi, Latacunga, Ecuador, 106 p. | ||||
| Thyme (T.vulgares), Rosemary (R.officinalis L.), oregano (O. vulgares L.) | Leaves and flowers | Aromex ®- YO | GmbH | Germany | Yan et al. (2010)Yan, L., Wang, J., Kim, J., Meng, Q., A.O, X., Hong, S. & Kim, H. 2010. “Influence of essential oil supplementation and diets with different nutrient densities on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood characteristics, meat quality and fecal noxious gas content in grower-finisher pigs”. Livestock Science, 128(1-3): 115-122, ISSN: 1871-1413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.11.008. | ||||
| True cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia), Fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum), Subterranean clover (Trifolium subterraneum) | Leaf, seed and stem | Aromex ®- ME | GmbH | Germany | Lan and Kim (2018Lan, R. & Kim, I. 2018. “Effects of feeding diets containing essential oils and betaine to heat-stressed growing-finishing pigs”. Archives of Animal Nutrition, 72(5): 368-378, ISSN: 1477-2817. https://doi.org/10.1080/1745039X.2018.1492806. ) | ||||
| Oregano (O. vulgare) | Leaves | Orego-Stim | Meriden Animal Health Ltd. | United Kingdom | Tan et al. (2015)Tan, C., Wei, H., Sun, H., Ao, J., Long, G., Jiang, S. & Peng, J. 2015. “Effects of Dietary Supplementation of Oregano Essential Oil to Sows on Oxidative Stress Status, Lactation Feed Intake of Sows, and Piglet Performance”. BioMed Research International, 525218, ISSN: 2314-6141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/525218. | ||||
| Broccoli extract (Brassica oleracea var. italica) and turmeric essential oils (Curcuma longa), thyme (T. vulgares), rosemary (R. officinalis L.) oregano (O. vulgares) | Different parts | Sipernat® | GmbH | Germany | Mueller et al. (2012)Mueller, K., Blum, N., Kluge, H., Bauerfeind, R., Froehlich, J., Mader, A., Wendler, K. & Mueller, A. 2012. “Effects of broccoli extract and various essential oils on the intestinal and fecal microflora and on xenobiotic enzymes and the system piglet antioxidant”. Open Journal of Animal Sciences, 2(2): 78-98, ISSN: 2161-7627. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojas.2012.22012. |
| Products | Stage | Indicators | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Orevitol®-L 500 ppm | Post-weaning | Treatment days (12) Initial weight, kg (6.60) Final weight, kg (7.77) Daily food intake, kg (1.61) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.07) |
Baca and Ampuero (2019)Baca, N. & Ampuero, A. 2019. “Efecto de la inclusión de aceite esencial de orégano en la dieta de lechones destetados sobre parámetros productivos”. Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú, 30(4): 1537-1542, ISSN: 1609-9117. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v30i4.17145. |
| Oregano essential oil 0.6 cm3/animal | Post- weaning | Treatment days (42) Initial average weight, kg (8.30) Final weight, kg (24.91) Daily weight gain, kg (0.38) |
Guerra et al. (2008)Guerra, C., Galán, J., Méndez, J. & Murillo, E. 2008. “Evaluación del efecto del extracto de orégano (Oreganum vulgare) sobre algunos parámetros productivos de cerdos destetos”. Revista Tumbaga, 1(3): 16-29, ISSN: 1909-4841. |
| Brocoli extract (Brassica oleracea var. italica) and turmeric essential oils (Curcuma longa), thyme (T. vulgares), rosemary (R. officinalis L.) and oregano (O. vulgares, inclusion of 150 mg/kg food | Post- weaning | Treatment days (28) Initial weight, kg (9.50) Final weight, kg (21) Daily food intake, kg (1.73) Daily weight gain, kg (0.76) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.41) |
Mueller et al. (2012)Mueller, K., Blum, N., Kluge, H., Bauerfeind, R., Froehlich, J., Mader, A., Wendler, K. & Mueller, A. 2012. “Effects of broccoli extract and various essential oils on the intestinal and fecal microflora and on xenobiotic enzymes and the system piglet antioxidant”. Open Journal of Animal Sciences, 2(2): 78-98, ISSN: 2161-7627. https://doi.org/10.4236/ojas.2012.22012. |
| Aromex ®- YO (thyme, rosemary, oregano, inclusion of 0.01 % in the diet | Growing | Treatment days (42) Initial average weight, kg (23.67) Weight gain, kg (25.66) Final average weight, kg (49.33) Food conversion, kg/kg (2.45) Total food intake, kg (63.04) |
Yan et al. (2010)Yan, L., Wang, J., Kim, J., Meng, Q., A.O, X., Hong, S. & Kim, H. 2010. “Influence of essential oil supplementation and diets with different nutrient densities on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood characteristics, meat quality and fecal noxious gas content in grower-finisher pigs”. Livestock Science, 128(1-3): 115-122, ISSN: 1871-1413. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.livsci.2009.11.008. |
| Aromex ®- ME (Original cinnamon, fenugreek, subterranean clover), inclusion of 0.01 % in the diet | Growing | Treatment days (42) Initial average weight, kg (24.08) Weight gain, kg (28.92) Final average weight, kg (53) Food conversion, kg/kg (2.26) Total food intake, kg (65.48) |
Lan and Kim (2018)Lan, R. & Kim, I. 2018. “Effects of feeding diets containing essential oils and betaine to heat-stressed growing-finishing pigs”. Archives of Animal Nutrition, 72(5): 368-378, ISSN: 1477-2817. https://doi.org/10.1080/1745039X.2018.1492806. |
| Regano 4XL 1.5 mL/kg of food | Fattening | Treatments days (60) Initial weight, kg (55.76) Final weight, kg (112.86) Total food intake, kg (105) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.83) |
Jiménez (2015)Jiménez, O. 2015. Evaluación de los parámetros productivos en cerdos de raza Landrace a base de aceite de orégano como promotor de crecimiento, en el barrio el Rosal del cantón Mejía. Veterinarian Thesis. Universidad Técnica de Cotopaxi, Latacunga, Ecuador, 106 p. |
| Orego-Stim, inclusion of 15 g/kg of food | Pregnancy | Treatment days (115) Daily food intake, kg (2.50) Initial average weight, kg (234) Final average weight, kg (268.10) Average number of piglets born/sow (11.28) Average number of piglets alive/sow (11.16) Average number of piglets weaned/ sow (9.60) Weight of piglets at farrowing, kg (1.56) |
Tan et al. (2015)Tan, C., Wei, H., Sun, H., Ao, J., Long, G., Jiang, S. & Peng, J. 2015. “Effects of Dietary Supplementation of Oregano Essential Oil to Sows on Oxidative Stress Status, Lactation Feed Intake of Sows, and Piglet Performance”. BioMed Research International, 525218, ISSN: 2314-6141. http://dx.doi.org/10.1155/2015/525218. |
VEGETABLE POWDERS
⌅To obtain plant powders, the root, stem and foliage of plant species with medicinal potential, free of pests and diseases, are used (Granados-Echegoyen et al. 2016Granados-Echegoyen, C., Ortega-Morales, B.O., Chan-Bacab, M.J., Reyes-Estébanez, M.M. & Camacho-Chab, J.C. 2016. “Polvos de especies vegetales para el control de Sitophilus zeamais Motschulsky (coleoptera: curculionidae)”. Entomología mexicana, 3: 430-435, ISSN: 2448-475X.). A low-cost methodology consists on dehydrating the samples for 7 d in the shade on perforated cardboard plates, which are removed twice a day. Subsequently, they are placed in an oven, with air recirculation for 1 h at 60 °C (Salazar et al. 2019Salazar, I., Rodríguez, R., Betancourt, C., Martínez, Y. & Guillaume, J. 2019. “Análisis de los metabolitos secundarios del polvo de hojas de Origanum vulgare y Ficus pandurata”. Revista de Producción Animal, 31(1): 61-63, ISSN: 2224-7920.). Next, the samples are grinded in a parallel blade hammer mill, to 1 mm particle size (Más Toro et al. 2017Más Toro, D., Martínez, Y., Rodríguez, R., Pupo, G., Rosabal, O. & Olmo, C. 2017. “Preliminary analysis of secondary metabolites in mixed powders of leaves of medicinal plants”. Revista Cubana de Plantas Medicinales, 22(1): 1-9, ISSN: 1028-4796.). They are kept at room temperature in amber bottles to avoid loss of active substances due to light action (Yin et al. 1993Yin, Y.L., Zhong, H.Y., Huang, R.L., Chen, C.M., Li, T.J. & Pai, Y.F. 1993. “Nutritive value of feedstuffs and diets for pigs. I. Chemical composition, apparent ileal and fecal digestibility”. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 44(1-2): 1-27, ISSN: 0377-8401. https://doi.org/10.1016/0377-8401(93)90034-H. ).
The active substances present in the powder of medicinal plants have antibacterial, antiviral, antifungal, antitumor, anthelmintic, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, hypotensive and immunostimulant properties (Más Toro et al. 2017Más Toro, D., Martínez, Y., Rodríguez, R., Pupo, G., Rosabal, O. & Olmo, C. 2017. “Preliminary analysis of secondary metabolites in mixed powders of leaves of medicinal plants”. Revista Cubana de Plantas Medicinales, 22(1): 1-9, ISSN: 1028-4796.). By adding medicinal plant powders to the pigs diet in the digestive tract, the development of intestinal pathogens (E. coli, Bacteroides spp. and Clostridium spp) is inhibited and increases the beneficial microbial population that contributes to improving digestion and absorption of nutrients, with increased weight gain, as well as a decrease in diarrheal syndrome in post-weaning piglets (Segarra 2016Segarra, C. 2016. Uso de extracto de raíz de jengibre, (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) en la alimentación de Cerdos. Engr Thesis. Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, Santo Domingo, Ecuador, 46 p.).
Vegetable powders are easy to prepare, and special equipment is not required for their preparation, as is the case with EO. The use of vegetable powders can be a good alternative as an additive in pigs diet in order to reduce dependence on antibiotics and synthetic growth promoters, which cause resistance of pathogenic microbes and residuality on the carcass. Tables 3 and 4 show different vegetable powders used as additives in pig production.
| Species (plant) | Used part | Presentation | Composition | Category | Dose | Benefits | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ginger(Zingiber officinale) | Rhizome | Pure powder | Reyes (2015) Reyes, M. 2015. Evaluación del Desempeño Sanitario al Aplicar Zingiber officinale (Jengibre), en la Alimentación de Cerdos York*Landrace, en la etapa Post - Destete - Acabado. Engr Thesis. Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador, 148 p. | ||||
| Cashew (Anacardium occidentale), guava (Psidium guajava), moringa (Moringa oleifera) | Leaf | Mixed powder | Aroche-Ginarte et al. (2017)Aroche-Ginarte, R., Martínez-Aguilar, Y., Ayala-González, L., Rodríguez-Bertot, R. & Rodríguez-Fraga, Y. 2017. “Comportamiento productivo e incidencia de diarrea en cerdos posdestete suplementados con polvo mixto de hojas de plantas con propiedades nutracéuticas”. Revista Ciencia y Agricultura, 14(2): 19-26, ISSN: 2539-0899. https://doi.org/10.19053/01228420.v14.n2.2017.7145. | ||||
| Guava (P. guajava), Cashew (A. occidentale) | Leaf | Mixed powder | Más Toro et al. (2016)Más Toro, D., Martínez, Y., Rodríguez, R., Salazar, I., Aroche, R., López, B. & Marcella, D. 2016. “Efecto de la suplementación dietética con polvos de hojas de guayaba (Psidium guajava) y marañón (Anacardium occidentale) en el comportamiento productivo y la incidencia de diarrea en cerdos antes y después del destete”. Revista Computarizada de Producción Porcina, 23(2): 106-113, ISSN: 1026-9053. | ||||
| Guava (P. guajava) | Leaf | Pure powder | Caicedo et al. (2021)Caicedo, W., Ferreira, F.N.A., Arteaga, Y., Flores, A., Buenaño, C., Pérez, M., Silva Neta, C.S. & Ferreira, W.M. 2021. “Guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaf meal and cooked extract in post-weaning piglets´ diets improve production rates and control the incidence of diarrhea”. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 33(1), Article #11, ISSN: 2521-9952. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd33/1/orlan3311.html. | ||||
| Garlic (A. sativum) | Bulb | Fermented powder | Yan et al. (2012) Yan, L., Meng, Q.W. & Kim, I. 2012. “Effects of fermented garlic powder supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood characteristics and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs”. Animal Science Journal, 83(5): 411-417, ISSN: 1740-0929. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-0929.2011.00973.x. | ||||
| Moringa (M. oleifera) | Leaves and stem | Pure powder | Jia-Jie et al. (2020) Jia-Jie, S., Peng, W., Guo-Ping, C., Jun-Yi, L., Qian-Yun, X., Geng-Yuan, C., Jia-Han, W., Bin, Z., Yue-Qin, X., Qing-Yan, J., Ting, C. & Yong-Liang, Z. 2020. “Effect of Moringa oleifera supplementation on productive performance, colostrum composition and serum biochemical indexes of sow”. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 104(1): 291-29. ISSN: 1439-0396. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13224.9. | ||||
| Red quebracho (Schinopsis balansae) | Stem | Pure powder | Rojas (2016)Rojas, V. 2016. Evaluación de Schinopsis lorentzii en cerdos utilizando dietas durante la fase de engorde. Engr Thesis. Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador, 92 p. |
| Products | Stage | Indicators | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cashew leaves , inclusion of 1% in the diet | Pre-weaning | Treatment days (12) Initial weight, kg (5.0) Final weight, kg (6.6) Daily food intake, kg (0.05) Weight gain kg (1.60) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.51) |
Mas Toro et al. (2016)Más Toro, D., Martínez, Y., Rodríguez, R., Salazar, I., Aroche, R., López, B. & Marcella, D. 2016. “Efecto de la suplementación dietética con polvos de hojas de guayaba (Psidium guajava) y marañón (Anacardium occidentale) en el comportamiento productivo y la incidencia de diarrea en cerdos antes y después del destete”. Revista Computarizada de Producción Porcina, 23(2): 106-113, ISSN: 1026-9053. |
| Mixture of cashew leaves, guava and moringa, inclusion of 1 % in the diet | Post- weaning | Treatment days (42) Initial weight, kg (7.86) Final weight, kg (23.56) Daily food intake, kg (0.37) Daily weight gain, kg (0.37) Weight gain, kg (15.70) Food conversion , kg/kg (2.39) |
Aroche-Ginarte et al. (2017)Aroche-Ginarte, R., Martínez-Aguilar, Y., Ayala-González, L., Rodríguez-Bertot, R. & Rodríguez-Fraga, Y. 2017. “Comportamiento productivo e incidencia de diarrea en cerdos posdestete suplementados con polvo mixto de hojas de plantas con propiedades nutracéuticas”. Revista Ciencia y Agricultura, 14(2): 19-26, ISSN: 2539-0899. https://doi.org/10.19053/01228420.v14.n2.2017.7145. |
| Guava leaf, inclusion of 1 g/100 g of food | Post-weaning | Treatment days (15) Initial weight, kg (9.17) Final weight, kg (13.52) Daily food intake, kg (0.35) Daily weight gain, kg (0.29) Weight gain, kg (4.35) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.35) |
Caicedo et al. (2021)Caicedo, W., Ferreira, F.N.A., Arteaga, Y., Flores, A., Buenaño, C., Pérez, M., Silva Neta, C.S. & Ferreira, W.M. 2021. “Guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaf meal and cooked extract in post-weaning piglets´ diets improve production rates and control the incidence of diarrhea”. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 33(1), Article #11, ISSN: 2521-9952. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd33/1/orlan3311.html. |
| Dried ginger rhizome, inclusion of 400 mg/kg of food | Growing | Treatment days (70) Initial weight, kg (10.83) Final weight, kg (42.55) Daily weight gain, kg (0.45) Daily food intake, kg (1.01) Food conversion, kg/kg 2.21 Weight gain, kg (31.72) Total food intake , kg (70.28) |
Reyes (2015)Reyes, M. 2015. Evaluación del Desempeño Sanitario al Aplicar Zingiber officinale (Jengibre), en la Alimentación de Cerdos York*Landrace, en la etapa Post - Destete - Acabado. Engr Thesis. Escuela Superior Politécnica de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador, 148 p. |
| Stem of red quebracho , inclusion of 500 g/t of food | Fattening | Treatment days (30) Initial weight, kg (73.61) Weight gain, kg (20.61) Daily weight gain, kg (0.68) Food conversion, kg/kg (3.02) Total food intake kg (62.22) Final weight, kg (94.22) |
Rojas (2016)Rojas, V. 2016. Evaluación de Schinopsis lorentzii en cerdos utilizando dietas durante la fase de engorde. Engr Thesis. Universidad Católica de Santiago de Guayaquil, Guayaquil, Ecuador, 92 p. |
| Dried garlic, inclusion of 2 g/kg of food | Fattening | Treatment days (84) Initial weight, kg (55.91) Weight gain, kg (65) Daily weight gain, kg (0.77) Food conversion, kg/kg (2.25) Total food intake, kg (189) Final weight, kg (121.18) |
Yan et al. (2012)Yan, L., Meng, Q.W. & Kim, I. 2012. “Effects of fermented garlic powder supplementation on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, blood characteristics and meat quality in growing-finishing pigs”. Animal Science Journal, 83(5): 411-417, ISSN: 1740-0929. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-0929.2011.00973.x. |
| Moringa leaf, inclusion of 8 % in the diet | Pregnancy | Treatment days (150) Food intake before mating kg/d/sow (2.50) Intake during pregnancy kg/d/sow (2.10) Average initial weight of sows, kg (140) Average number of piglets born /sow (13.50) Average number of piglets alive/sow (11.57) Litter weight at born, kg (19.16) Average weight of the piglet at born, kg (1.38) |
Jia-Jie et al. (2020)Jia-Jie, S., Peng, W., Guo-Ping, C., Jun-Yi, L., Qian-Yun, X., Geng-Yuan, C., Jia-Han, W., Bin, Z., Yue-Qin, X., Qing-Yan, J., Ting, C. & Yong-Liang, Z. 2020. “Effect of Moringa oleifera supplementation on productive performance, colostrum composition and serum biochemical indexes of sow”. Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition, 104(1): 291-29. ISSN: 1439-0396. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpn.13224.9. |
VEGETABLE EXTRACTS
⌅Plant extracts belong to the group of additives classified as aromatic and flavoring, which include all natural products and the corresponding synthetic products that can be used in all animal species, without limitation of age or dose. The use of macerates, decoction, infusion and boiled preparations is the most common way of taking advantage of plant resources to overcome various disorders such as rheumatism, diarrhea, diabetes mellitus, cough, bical ulcers, cholesterol reduction and as an antibacterial against Vibrio cholerae, Shigella flexneri, S. aureus, Salmonella spp., E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans (Gonçalves et al. 2008Gonçalves, F.A., Andrade Neto, M., Bezerra, J.N.S., Macrae, A., De Sousa, O.V., Fonteles-Filho, A.A. & Vieira, R.H.S.D.F. 2008. “Antibacterial activity of guava, Psidium guajava Linnaeus, leaf extracts on diarrhea-causingenteric bacteria isolated from seabob shrimp, Xiphopenaeus kroyeri (Heller)”. Revista do Instituto de Medicina Tropical de São Paulo, 50(1): 11-15, ISSN: 1678-9946. https://doi.org/10.1590/s0036-46652008000100003. , Gutiérrez et al. 2008Gutiérrez, R.M.P., Mitchell, S. & Solis, R.V. 2008. “Psidium guajava: A review of its traditional uses, phytochemistryand pharmacology”. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 117(1): 1-27, ISSN: 0378-8741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2008.01.025. , Birdi et al. 2010Birdi, T., Daswani, P., Brijesh, S., Tetali, P., Natu, A. & Antia, N. 2010. “Newer insights into the mechanism of action of Psidium guajava L. leaves in infectious diarrhea”. BMC Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 10: 33, ISSN: 1472-6882. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/1472-6882-10-33. , Metwally et al. 2010Metwally, A.M., Omar, A.A., Harraz, F.M. & El Sohafy, S.M. 2010. “Phytochemical investigation and antimicrobialactivity of Psidium guajava L. leaves”. Pharmacognosy Magazine, 6: 212-218, ISSN: 0976-4062. https://doi.org/10.4103/0973-1296.66939. , Sanda et al. 2011Sanda, K.A., Grema, H.A., Geidam, Y.A. & Bukar-Kolo, Y.M. 2011. “Pharmacological aspects of P. guajava: An update”. International Journal of Pharmacology, 7(3): 316-324, ISSN: 1811-7775. https://doi.org/10.3923/ijp.2011.316.324. , Shruthi et al. 2013Shruthi, S.D., Roshan, A., Sharma, S. & Sunita, S. 2013. “A review on the medicinal plant Psidium guajava Linn. (Myrtaceae)”. Journal of Drug Delivery & Therapeutics, 3 (2): 162-168, ISSN: 2250-1177. and Morais-Braga et a.l 2016Morais-Braga, M.F.B., Carneiro, J.N.P., Machado, A.J.T., Dos Santos, A.T.L., Sales, D.L., Lima, L.F., Figueredo, F.G. & Coutinho, H.D.M. 2016. “Psidium guajava L., from ethnobiology to scientific evaluation: Elucidating bioactivity against pathogenic microorganisms”. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 194: 1140-1152, ISSN: 0378-8741. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2016.11.017. ).
Plant extracts are cheaper and more practical compared to powders and EO. They are easy to prepare and apply. Regarding the benefits obtained when using them, their stability and tolerance should be highlighted, since they can be used in all animal species, without restriction of age or product concentration (Hanczakowska and Swiatkiewicz 2012Hanczakowska, E. & Swiatkiewicz, M. 2012. “Effect of herbal extracts on piglet performance”. Czech Journal of Animal Science, 57(9): 420-429, ISSN: 1805-9309., García- Risco et al. 2015García-Risco, M., Vázquez, E., Sheldon, J., Steinmann, E., Riebesehl, N., Fornari, T. & Reglero, G. 2015. “Supercritical fluid extraction of heather (Calluna vulgaris) and evaluation of anti-hepatitis C virus activity of the extracts”. Virus Research, 198: 9-14, ISSN: 0168-1702. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.virusres.2014.12.022. and Santamaría et al. 2015Santamaría, C., Martín-González, A. & Astorga, F. 2015. “Extractos vegetales aplicación para la reducción de stres”. Revista nutriNews, No.2: 75-80. Available: https://nutricionanimal.info/download/0315-ena-WEB.pdf.).
Plant extracts are a good alternative for use as an additive in pig diets, since they are low cost and provide benefits in the sensory characteristics of the food, with the consequent increase in dry matter intake. The researches in pigs show that the use of plant extracts improves productive yield, digestibility of dry matter and protein. In addition, it provides anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial effects against various pathogens, with improvements in meat quality parameters (Isley et al. 2003Isley, S.E., Miller, H.M., Greathead, H.M.R. & Kamel, C. 2003. “Plant extracts as supplements for lactating sows: Effects on piglet performance sow food intake and diet digestibility”. Animal Science, 77(2): 247-254, ISSN: 1748-748X. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1357729800058987. , Liu et al. 2013Liu, Y., Song, M., Che, T.M., Almeida, J.A.S., Lee, J.J., Bravo, D. & Pettigrew, J.E. 2013. “Dietary plant extracts alleviate diarrhea and alter immune responses of weaned pigs experimentally infected with a pathogenic Escherichia coli”. Journal of Animal Science, 91(11): 5294-5306, ISSN: 1525-3163. https://doi.org/10.2527/jas.2012-6194. , Devi et al. 2015Devi, S.M., Park, J.W. & Kim, I.H. 2015. “Effect of plant extracts on growth performance and insulin-like growth factor 1 secretion in growing pigs”. Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia, 44(10): 355-360, ISSN: 1806-9290. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1806-92902015001000003. and Hanczakowska et al. 2015Hanczakowska, E., Swi ̨Atkiewicz, M. & Grela, E.R. 2015. “Effect of dietary inclusion of a herbal extract mixture and different oils on pig performance and meat quality”. Meat Science, 108: 61-66, ISSN: 0309-1740. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.meatsci.2015.05.020. ). Tables 5 and 6 show different studies with plant extracts for use in pigs.
| Species (plant) | Used part | Commercial name | Trading house | Country | Composition | Category | Dose | Benefits | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Mixture between Thyme (T. vulgaris) and carob (Ceratonia siliqua) | Whole plant and seeds | Dysantic® | Vetanco | Argentina | Galactopyranose, thymol, carvacrol and flavonoids | Zamora (2018) Zamora, F. 2018. Extractos comerciales de tomillo (Thymus vulgaris) y de algarrobo (Ceratonia siliqua) en la dieta de lechones destetados. Engr Thesis. Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Perú, 50 p. | |||
| Mixture of artichoke(Cyna-ra sculymus), celery(Apium graveolens), beet (Beta vulgaris), onion (Allium cepa), garlic (Allium sativum), spinach(Spina-cea olerace), avocado(Persea americana), oat (Avena sativa) and parsley (Petroselinum crispun) | Several parts | Protorgan® | GUWLAB | Mexico | Polyphenols, quercetins, apigenin, phytoestrogens | Fattening and growing pigs | Dávila-Ramírez et al. (2020)Dávila-Ramírez, J., Munguía-Acosta, L., Morales-Coronado, J., García-Salinas, A., González-Ríos, H., Celaya-Michel, H., Sosa-Castañeda, J., Sánchez-Villalba, E., Anaya-Islas, J. & Barrera-Silva, A. 2020. “Addition of a Mixture of Plant Extracts to Diets for Growing-Finishing Pigs on Growth Performance, Blood Metabolites, Carcass Traits, Organ Weight as a Percentage of Live Weight, Quality and Sensorial Analysis of Meat”. Animals, 10(7): 1229, ISSN: 2076-2615. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10071229. | ||
| Soapbark (Mapudungun küllay) | Leaves and flowers | Hibotek | CCLabs | Ecuador | Fatty acids Omega 3 vitamin E. Heterogeneous group of sterol glycosides and triterpenoids | De La Cueva (2013)De La Cueva, E. 2013. Inclusión de niveles de extracto de quillaja en el engorde de cerdos en el cantón Santo Domingo. Engr Thesis. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Quevedo, Ecuador, 80 p. | |||
| Cinnamon (Cinnamomum verum) | Stem | Re ProPlus | PlusVet Animal Health | China | Plant extracts, organic acids, natural origin omega-3fatty acids and mycotoxin sequestrants. | PVAH (2019)PlusVet Animal Health (PVAH). 2019. Expertos en fitobióticos y salud digestiva. Available: http://plus.vet/home/our-products/reproplus. | |||
| Wild anise (Piper auritum Kunth) | Leaves | Cooked extract of wild anise foliage | - | - | Polyphenols and tannins | Caicedo et al. (2019)Caicedo, W., Pérez, M., Sánchez, J., Flores, A. & Duchitanga, E. 2019. “Contenido de fenoles totales y actividad antioxidante del follaje de anís silvestre (Piper auritum Kunth) y su efecto nutracéutico para cerdos en posdestete”. Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú, 30(4): 1470-1480, ISSN: 1609-9117. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v30i4.17264. | |||
| Ginger (Zingiber officinale) | Rhizome | Soapbark extract | - | - | Fatty acids, fiber, essential oils, amino acids and minerals. Aromatic principles: zingiberene bisabolene Punget principles: gingerols and shogaols | Segarra (2016)Segarra, C. 2016. Uso de extracto de raíz de jengibre, (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) en la alimentación de Cerdos. Engr Thesis. Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, Santo Domingo, Ecuador, 46 p. | |||
| Spanish chestnut (Castanea sativa) | Leaves | Spanish chestnut extract | - | - | Heterogeneouspolymeric tannins formed by phenolic acids, in particular gallic acids, and simple sugars. | Aguirre-Meza et al. (2016)Aguirre-Meza, R., Romo-Rubio, J., Barajas-Cruz, R., Romo-Valdez, J., Güémez-Gaxiola, H. & Urías-Castro, C. 2016. “Respuesta productiva de cerdos en crecimiento-finalización a la suplementación”. Abanico Veterinario, 6(3): 55-64, ISSN: 2448-6132. https://doi.org/10.21929/abavet2016.63.5. | |||
| Guava (P. guajava) | Leaf | Cooked extract of guava foliage | - | - | Polysaccharides, pectins, vitamins, steroids, glycosides, tannins, flavonoids and saponins | Caicedo et al. (2021)Caicedo, W., Ferreira, F.N.A., Arteaga, Y., Flores, A., Buenaño, C., Pérez, M., Silva Neta, C.S. & Ferreira, W.M. 2021. “Guava (Psidium guajava L.) leaf meal and cooked extract in post-weaning piglets´ diets improve production rates and control the incidence of diarrhea”. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 33(1), Article #11, ISSN: 2521-9952. Available: http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd33/1/orlan3311.html. |
| Product | Stage | Indicators | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Dysantic® (thyme), inclusion of 0.1 % in the diet | Pre- weaning | Treatment days (24) Initial weight, kg (6.68) Final weight, kg (8.96) Daily food intake, kg (0.28) Daily weight gain, kg (0.17) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.13) |
Zamora (2018) Zamora, F. 2018. Extractos comerciales de tomillo (Thymus vulgaris) y de algarrobo (Ceratonia siliqua) en la dieta de lechones destetados. Engr Thesis. Universidad Nacional Pedro Ruiz Gallo, Lambayeque, Perú, 50 p. |
| Wild anise, inclusion of 10 ml/100 g of food | Post-weaning | Treatment days (14) Initial weight, kg (6.06) Final weight, kg (8.94) Daily food intake, kg (0.34) Daily weight gain, kg (0.23) Weight gain, kg (2.88) Food conversion, kg/kg (1.71) |
Caicedo et al (2019)Caicedo, W., Pérez, M., Sánchez, J., Flores, A. & Duchitanga, E. 2019. “Contenido de fenoles totales y actividad antioxidante del follaje de anís silvestre (Piper auritum Kunth) y su efecto nutracéutico para cerdos en posdestete”. Revista de Investigaciones Veterinarias del Perú, 30(4): 1470-1480, ISSN: 1609-9117. http://dx.doi.org/10.15381/rivep.v30i4.17264. |
| Hibotek (Soapbark), inclusion of 300 ppm in the diet | Growing | Treatment days (90) Initial weight, kg (15.22) Final weight, kg (73.82) Daily weight gain, kg (0.74) Daily food intake, kg (1.64) Food conversion, kg/kg (3.81) Weight gain, kg (58.60) Total food intake ,kg (147.64) |
De La Cueva (2013)De La Cueva, E. 2013. Inclusión de niveles de extracto de quillaja en el engorde de cerdos en el cantón Santo Domingo. Engr Thesis. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Quevedo, Ecuador, 80 p. |
| Protorgan®, inclusion of 0.1% in the diet | Growing | Initial weight, kg (30) Final weight, kg (70) Daily food intake, kg (2.3) Food conversion, kg/kg (2.3) |
Dávila-Ramírez et al (2020)Dávila-Ramírez, J., Munguía-Acosta, L., Morales-Coronado, J., García-Salinas, A., González-Ríos, H., Celaya-Michel, H., Sosa-Castañeda, J., Sánchez-Villalba, E., Anaya-Islas, J. & Barrera-Silva, A. 2020. “Addition of a Mixture of Plant Extracts to Diets for Growing-Finishing Pigs on Growth Performance, Blood Metabolites, Carcass Traits, Organ Weight as a Percentage of Live Weight, Quality and Sensorial Analysis of Meat”. Animals, 10(7): 1229, ISSN: 2076-2615. http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/ani10071229. |
| Ginger rhizome, inclusion of 0.75% in the diet | Growing | Treatment days (80) Initial weight, kg (17.45) Final weight, kg (82.5) Daily weight gain, kg (0.80) Daily food intake, kg (2.80) Food conversion, kg/kg (2.87) Weight gain, kg (65.05) Total food intake, kg (227.27) |
Segarra (2016)Segarra, C. 2016. Uso de extracto de raíz de jengibre, (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) en la alimentación de Cerdos. Engr Thesis. Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas, Santo Domingo, Ecuador, 46 p. |
| Spanish chestnut, inclusion of 0.2% in the diet | Fattening | Treatment days (40) Initial weight, kg (60.18) Weight gain, kg (27.99) Daily weight gain, kg (0.68) Food conversion, kg/kg (3.07) Final weight, kg (88.17) |
Aguirre-Meza et al. (2016)Aguirre-Meza, R., Romo-Rubio, J., Barajas-Cruz, R., Romo-Valdez, J., Güémez-Gaxiola, H. & Urías-Castro, C. 2016. “Respuesta productiva de cerdos en crecimiento-finalización a la suplementación”. Abanico Veterinario, 6(3): 55-64, ISSN: 2448-6132. https://doi.org/10.21929/abavet2016.63.5. |
| Re ProPlus (cinnamon), inclusion of 10 g/day in the diet | Pregnancy | Pregnancy days (70) Treatment days (45) Average number of piglets born/sow (12.07) Average number of piglets alive/sow (11.37) Average weight of piglets at born, kg (1.04) |
PVAH (2019)PlusVet Animal Health (PVAH). 2019. Expertos en fitobióticos y salud digestiva. Available: http://plus.vet/home/our-products/reproplus. |
CONCLUSIONS
⌅The use of commercial and experimental phytobiotic additives constitutes an alternative to the excessive use of synthetic antibiotics, which act as growth promoters in pigs. These additives are supplied to animals as essential oils, powders and extracts to improve food intake, weight gain, Food conversion, final weight, carcass characteristics and reduce the incidence of diarrhea after weaning. The supplementation with phytobiotics in pigs diet is totally innocuous, that is, it does not have a withdrawal period, without wastes in tissues, and does not generate microbial resistance.